International Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics

The concept of mindscapes has been shaped by M. MARUYAMA from 1979 on (1979, p.13-23).

According to MARUYAMA, individuals as well as cultures differ from each other by very variable psychological and mental orientations.

In connection with constructivist psychology, sociology and epistemology, and with the consensus problem, universally present in every domain, MARUYAMA's typology classifies some of the causes of the innumerable difficulties, misunderstandings, and conflicts which afflict humanity.

The four basic types described by MARUYAMA are as follows:

(1) H-type: homogeneistic, hierarchical, classificational.

(2) I-type: heterogeneistic, isolationistic, random.

(3) S-type: heterogeinistic, interactive, homeostatic.

(4) G-type: heterogeneistic, interactive, morphogenetic.

MARUYAMA gives numerous examples. According to him:

"Let us keep in mind there are other types, as well as mixtures of types… In any large society or culture, it is possible to find all four and many other types in individuals. The types are partly innate and partly learned. Different cultures and professions exercise different pressures for or against some types in the process of acculturation, socialization, ostracism, marginalization, etc. Individuals also exercise self-selection, internalization, sublimation, attrition, alienation, repression, identification, etc. It is possible for an individual to change his/her type, but there seems to be a critical age, after which it becomes very difficult to change types.

There are individual variations in the age limit as well as in the degree of difficulty. Some individuals become fixed in childhood. Others may be able to change much later in life.

"The mindscape theory may appear to be a typology. However, its purpose and use lie in interrelating seemingly separate aspects of human activities such as organizational structure, policy formulation, decision process, management method, architectural design, criteria of beauty, choice of theories, etc. It is relational rather than classificational" (Ibid).

MARUYAMA seems to view himself as belonging to the G-type. He uses his theory as an orientative guideline for non-autoritarian teaching, that should be "morphogenetic", i.e. open to creativity.

He applied it more recently to "Mindscapes in management" (1994), particularly considering the psychological and cultural problems of expatriate executive officers in multinational enterprises.